A nurse is providing education to a client who has experienced recurrent kidney stones. The client asks, "What can I do to prevent future kidney stones?" What is the nurse's best response?

A. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) is typically used for smaller stones that can be broken up into smaller fragments and passed more easily. It is not usually recommended for large stones.

B. This is the correct answer. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is a procedure used to remove larger kidney stones. It involves making a small incision in the back and inserting a nephroscope to directly visualize and remove the stone.

C. Ureteroscopy with laser lithotripsy is used for stones in the ureter, not in the kidney itself.

D. Cystoscopy with stent placement is used for conditions involving the lower urinary tract, such as the urethra and bladder, and is not typically used to remove kidney stones.

A. Excessive consumption of fruits and vegetables is not a primary cause of kidney stones. Some specific types of fruits and vegetables may contribute to stone formation, but it is not a general cause.

B. While genetic factors and family history can play a role in kidney stone formation, they are not the primary cause. The presence of minerals and salts in the urine is the main contributing factor.

C. An overactive bladder and frequent urination are not direct causes of kidney stone formation. They may be related to other urinary conditions but not to the formation of kidney stones.

D. This is the correct answer. Kidney stones are formed when certain minerals and salts in the urine form solid crystals that can clump together and grow into stones.