A nurse is assisting with teaching a class about sleep disorders. The nurse should include that which of the following conditions can cause central sleep apnea (CSA)?

The correct answer is: d. Formal operational

Choice A: Concrete operational

During the concrete operational stage, which typically occurs between the ages of 7 and 11, children develop logical thinking skills. They begin to understand the concept of conservation, the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. However, their thinking is still very concrete and tied to tangible objects and real events. Abstract thinking is not yet developed at this stage.

Choice B: Sensorimotor

The sensorimotor stage spans from birth to about 2 years of age. In this stage, infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. They develop object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Abstract thinking does not occur in this stage as infants are focused on immediate sensory experiences and motor activities.

Choice C: Preoperational

The preoperational stage occurs between the ages of 2 and 7. During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols, but they do not yet understand concrete logic. Their thinking is still egocentric, meaning they have difficulty seeing things from perspectives other than their own. Abstract thinking is not a characteristic of this stage.

Choice D: Formal operational

The formal operational stage begins around age 12 and continues into adulthood. This stage is characterized by the development of abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning. Individuals in this stage can think about abstract concepts, consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions, and use systematic ways to solve problems. This stage marks the emergence of scientific reasoning and the ability to think about abstract ideas.

Choice A reason : Cultural bias can negatively impact data collection by causing healthcare providers to make assumptions based on stereotypes rather than individual assessments. This can lead to incomplete or inaccurate data, as certain symptoms or health issues may be overlooked or misattributed to cultural factors.

Choice B reason : Cultural bias can significantly impair the therapeutic relationship between healthcare providers and clients. When providers have preconceived notions about a patient's culture, they may communicate less effectively, make incorrect assumptions, or fail to build trust. This can result in a lack of adherence to treatment plans and decreased patient satisfaction.

Choice C reason : While spending more time with each client could be seen as beneficial, cultural bias does not inherently lead to this outcome. In fact, bias may cause providers to spend less time with clients from certain backgrounds due to misconceptions or communication barriers.

Choice D reason : Cultural bias is a known contributor to healthcare disparities, not a solution to them. Biases can lead to unequal treatment, access, and outcomes across different cultural groups.